THE modern philosophy begins in the 15th century when the Modern Age begins. It remains until the 18th century, with the arrival of the Contemporary Age.
It marks a transition from medieval thought, based on faith and the relationship between men and God, to the anthropocentric thought, a mark of modernity, which elevates humanity to a new status as the great object of study.
Rationalism and empiricism, currents of thought built in the period, demonstrate this change. Both aim to provide answers about the origin of human knowledge. The first is associated with human reason and the second is based on experience.
Historical context
The end of the Middle Ages was based on the concept of theocentrism (God at the center of the world) and on the feudal system, ended with the advent of the Modern Age.
This phase brings together several scientific discoveries (in the fields of astronomy, natural sciences, mathematics, physics, etc.) which gave rise to anthropocentric thinking (man at the center of the world).
Thus, this period was marked by the revolution in philosophical and scientific thought. This is because it left aside medieval religious explanations and created new methods of scientific investigation. It was in this way that the power of the Catholic Church was weakening more and more.
At this moment, the humanism it has a centralizing role offering a more active position of the human being in society. That is, as a thinking being and with greater freedom of choice.
Several transformations took place in European thought at the time, among which the following stand out:
- the transition from feudalism to capitalism;
- the rise of the bourgeoisie;
- the formation of modern national states;
- absolutism;
- mercantilism;
- the Protestant Reformation;
- the great navigations;
- the invention of the printing press;
- the discovery of the new world;
- the beginning of the Renaissance movement.
Main features
The main features of modern philosophy are based on the following concepts:
- Anthropocentrism and Humanism
- scientism
- Valuing nature
- Rationalism (reason)
- Empiricism (experiences)
- freedom and idealism
- Renaissance and Enlightenment
- lay (non-religious) philosophy
Main Modern Philosophers
Check out the main philosophers and philosophical problems of the Modern Age below:
Inspired by Epicureanism, stoicism, humanism and skepticism, Montaigne was a French philosopher, writer and humanist. He worked with themes of human essence, morals and politics.
He was the creator of the textual genre personal essay when he published his work “Essay”, in 1580.
Considered “Father of Modern Political Thought”, Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher and politician of the Renaissance period.
He introduced moral and ethical principles to the Policy. He separated politics from ethics, a theory analyzed in his most emblematic work “The prince”, published posthumously in 1532.
French philosopher and jurist, Bodin contributed to the evolution of modern political thought. His "theory of the divine right of kings" was analyzed in his work "the republic”.
According to him, political power was concentrated in a single figure that represents the image of God on Earth, based on the precepts of the monarchy.
British philosopher and politician, Bacon collaborated in the creation of a new scientific method. Thus, he is considered one of the founders of the "inductive method of scientific inquiry", based on observations of natural phenomena.
In addition, he presented the “idol theory” in his work “NovumOrganum”, which, according to him, altered human thought as well as hindered the advancement of science.
“Father of Physics and Modern Science”, Galileo was an Italian astronomer, physicist and mathematician.
He collaborated with several scientific discoveries in his time. Much was based on the heliocentric theory in Nicolas Copernicus (The Earth revolves around the sun), thus contradicting the dogmas exposed by the Catholic Church.
Furthermore, he was the creator of the “experimental mathematical method”, which is based on the observation of natural phenomena, experiments and the valorization of mathematics.
French philosopher and mathematician, Descartes is recognized for one of his famous phrases: “I think therefore I am”.
He was the creator of Cartesian thought, a philosophical system that gave rise to Modern Philosophy. This theme was analyzed in his work "The Discourse on Method”, a philosophical and mathematical treatise, published in 1637.
A Dutch philosopher, Spinoza based his theories on a radical rationalism. He criticized and fought superstitions (religious, political and philosophical) that, according to him, would be based on the imagination.
From this, the philosopher believed in the rationality of a transcendental and immanent God identified with nature, which was analyzed in his work “ethic”.
French philosopher and mathematician, Pascal contributed studies based on the search for truth, reflected in human tragedy.
According to him, reason would not be the ideal end to prove the existence of God, since the human being is impotent and limited to appearances.
In his work "Thoughts”, presents his main questions about the existence of a God based on rationalism.
English philosopher and political theorist, Hobbes sought to analyze the causes and properties of things, leaving aside the metaphysics (essence of being).
Based on the concepts of materialism, mechanicism and empiricism, developed his theory. In it, reality is explained by the body (matter) and its movements (allied to mathematics).
His most emblematic work is a political treatise called “Leviathan” (1651), mentioning the theory of “social contract” (existence of a sovereign).
An empiricist English philosopher, Locke was the forerunner of many liberal ideas thus criticizing monarchical absolutism.
According to him, all knowledge came from experience. Thus, human thought would be based on the ideas of sensations and reflection where the mind would be a "blank slate" at the moment of birth.
Thus, ideas are acquired throughout life from our experiences.
A Scottish philosopher and diplomat, Hume followed the empiricist line and the skepticism. He criticized dogmatic rationalism and inductive reasoning, analyzed in his work “Research on Human Understanding”.
In this work, he defends the idea of developing knowledge from sensitive experience, where perceptions would be divided into:
impressions (associated with the senses);
ideas (mental representations resulting from impressions).
French philosopher and jurist of the enlightenment, Montesquieu was an advocate of democracy and critic of absolutism and Catholicism.
Its greatest theoretical contribution was the separation of state powers in three powers (executive power, legislative power and judiciary). This theory was formulated in his work The Spirit of Laws (1748).
According to him, this characterization would protect individual freedoms, while avoiding abuses by rulers.
French philosopher, poet, dramatist and historian was one of the most important thinkers of the Enlightenment, a movement based on reason.
He defended the monarchy ruled by an enlightened sovereign and individual freedom and thought, while criticizing religious intolerance and the clergy.
According to him, the existence of God would be a social necessity and, therefore, if it were not possible to confirm his existence, we would have to invent him.
Philosopher and encyclopedist of the French Enlightenment, together with Jean le Rond D'Alembert (1717-1783), he organized the “Encyclopedia”. This 33-volume work brought together knowledge from different areas.
It counted on the collaboration of several thinkers, such as Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. This publication was essential for the expansion of modern bourgeois thought at the time and of the Enlightenment ideals.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss social philosopher and writer and one of the most important figures in the Enlightenment movement. He was an advocate of freedom and a critic of rationalism.
In the area of philosophy, he investigated issues concerning social and political institutions. He affirmed the goodness of the human being in state of nature and the corruption factor originated by society.
His most outstanding works are: “Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequalities among men” (1755) and “Social contract” (1762).
A Scottish philosopher and economist, Smith was the leading theorist of the liberalism economic, thus criticizing the mercantilist system.
His most emblematic work is the “Essay on the Wealth of Nations”. Here, he defends an economy based on the law of supply and demand, which would result in the self-regulation of the market and, consequently, meet social needs.
A German philosopher with an Enlightenment influence, Kant sought to explain the types of judgments and knowledge by developing a “critical examination of reason”.
In his work "Critique of pure reason” (1781) he presents two forms that lead to knowledge: empirical knowledge (Theposterior) and pure knowledge (Theprior).
In addition to this work, the "Metaphysical foundation of morals" (1785) and the "Critique of practical reason” (1788).
In short, the Kantian philosophy sought to create an ethics whose principles were not based on religion but on knowledge based on sensitivity and understanding.
Read too:
- What is Philosophy?
- Modern age
- Enlightenment Philosophers
- Medieval Philosophy
